Raphael was one of the four greatest artists of the Italian Renaissance. A contemporary of Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, he shaped Renaissance culture and its visual language. He was one of the architects of the St. Peter’s Basilica, the designer of the Sistine Chapel tapestries, and a popular artist in high demand. Read […]

Enslaved Africans in Brazil who managed to escape the plantations and harsh labor systems took refuge in difficult-to-access areas outside of Portuguese control and formed communities, quilombos. Here, they not only managed to survive but also to rebuild the social and cultural structures of their African roots. Over time, they also developed alternative models […]

In March 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte assumed command of France’s Army of Italy. Revolutionary France’s government, the Directory, prioritized their forces fighting in Germany. In other words, Napoleon’s army tasked with invading northern Italy was initially more of a diversion in the larger military picture. However, Napoleon’s resounding victories over Piedmontese and Austrian forces soon […]

American Patriots referred to the years 1779 and 1780 during the Revolutionary War (1775-1783) as the “Dark Days.” Indeed, the American cause faced numerous setbacks during this period. For instance, American general Benedict Arnold’s stunning treason nearly resulted in losing the strategic position of West Point, New York. Moreover, historian Walter Edgar (2001) notes […]